Sirenews (ISSN 1017-3439) appears twice a year

in April and October and is edited by Daryl P. Domning,

Department of Anatomy, Howard University, Washington, D.C. 20059  USA

(fax: 202-265-7055). It is supported by the U.S. Marine Mammal Commission.

 

 

 

NUMBER 22                                                                                               OCTOBER 1994

 

 

IN THIS ISSUE:    -  RELEASING  REHABILITATED  MANATEES  IN  FLORIDA  AND PUERTO RICO  (pp. 4, 10)

 

                                                           -  DUGONG STATUS IN MADAGASCAR  (p. 6)

 

                                                           -  MANATEES AT NUREMBERG ZOO ACHIEVE  SPECTACULAR BREEDING SUCCESS  (p. 5)

 

 

IS THE CATCH OF DUGONGS IN TORRES STRAIT SUSTAINABLE?

 

          The  results of the aerial survey I conducted in 1992 indicate that at least 24,225  +_  s.e. 3,276  dugongs  live  in Torres Strait, the tract of sea between  northern  Australia  and  Papua New  Guinea (PNG). Torres Strait is thus the most important dugong habitat in  Australia  and probably the world.

          Torres  Strait  is a relatively pristine environment and the major impact on  dugongs  is traditional  hunting.  Thanks to a comprehensive study by Aubrey Harris  and  his  co-workers from CSIRO, we now have better information on this dugong fishery than ever before.

          Dugong  hunting,  a  traditional  test of manhood, is still  solely  a  male  activity.  The skilled hunter enjoys considerable prestige in the community and hunting is considered to be an important expression of Islander culture, which is undergoing a resurgence coincident with  the increasing recognition of the rights of Indigenous Australians. Dugongs are still a prized  traditional food source for Torres Strait Islanders and for the Kiwai people of the Western Province of PNG. The meat of dugongs still ranks highest among traditional foods in Torres Strait,  and
no  celebration  is  considered complete without dugong on the menu. This is  reflected  in  the seasonality of catch, which is highest in the period of festivity leading up to Christmas and  the New Year. This is also the season when the weather is most suitable for hunting.

          In  the early 1980's, Brydget Barker-Hudson questioned the sustainability of the  Kiwai dugong  catch.  Harris' data indicate that the catch from the Australian islands is  much  higher than the catch recorded by Barker-Hudson in PNG.

          Harris  conducted a comprehensive quantitative study of traditional hunting and  fishing conducted  by the residents of 14 communities in the Protected Zone, the area covered  by  the Torres  Strait Treaty, an international agreement between PNG and Australia. He did  not  collect  data from communities outside this area, i.e., along the Papuan coast or  from  Australian islands south of the Zone.

          Harris  estimated that the wet weight of dugongs landed in the Protected Zone in  1991-93  was higher than the weight of any other component of the seafood catch,  including  finfish or  turtle.  On an average day, four boats land 645 +_ s.e. 102 kg of dugong in the  Zone.  This equates  to  an estimated annual harvest of 1226 +_ 204 dugongs or 5% of  my  minimum  mean estimate  of  the dugong population of the whole region. Given that the catch statistics  do  not include  any  data  from outside the Protected Zone, these figures are worryingly  close  to  the estimated maximum sustainable yield if my mean estimate of the dugong population is close  to an absolute estimate.

          It is impossible to evaluate the situation more accurately without information on:

            -  absolute estimates of dugong numbers,

            -  catch statistics for PNG, and

            -  current life history statistics for dugongs in Torres Strait,

but the situation certainly warrants close scrutiny.

          Fortunately,  the Torres Strait Islanders are demanding increasing responsibility for  the management  of  their marine resources. They are involved in the ongoing  monitoring  of  the dugong catch and hunting effort and the aerial surveys.  -  Helene Marsh

 

 

WANTED:  INFORMATION ON SIRENIAN LEGISLATION

 

          Professor   Patricia   Birnie   has   been  commissioned   by   UNEP   to   undertake   a comprehensive review and analysis of the existing legal system for the protection of all aquatic mammals.  She  is  having  difficulty finding examples  of  legislation  specifically  concerning sirenians,  and  would appreciate receipt of copies of such legislation  from  all  sirenian-range countries.  Materials  should  be  sent  directly  to her,  as  follows:  Prof.  P.  W.  Birnie,  78 Windmill Street, Brill, Aylesbury, Bucks HP18 9TG, England; tel. & fax: 44-844-237-880.

 

 

SPANISH-LANGUAGE MANATEE LEAFLETS AVAILABLE

 

          The  Florida Power & Light Company has produced a Spanish version of its 1992  leaflet  entitled  "Guidelines for Protecting Manatees." This leaflet is designed for  use  in  Florida and  includes  facts about manatee biology as well as guidelines for swimming and  boating  in manatee  areas.  Limited  quantities of the new "Guia para Proteger  al  Manati"  are  available from Dr. J. Ross WIlcox, Chief Ecologist, Environmental Affairs, Florida Power & Light Co. P.O. Box 088801, North Palm Beach, Florida 33408-8801.

 

LOCAL NEWS

 

AUSTRALIA

 

          Satellite  Tracking  of  Dugongs  in Northern  Australia.  -  I've  been  satellite-tracking dugongs in a remote area of the Gulf of  Carpentaria since May. Aerial surveys  in 1984-5 indicated that this area had one of  the highest    dugong    concentrations     known. However, in the following two years the area was  pounded  by two cyclones  and  most  of the seagrass areas were lost. We do not know what  impact this had on the  dugong  population,  but preliminary data suggest  that  there are  far fewer dugongs in the area today.  An October aerial survey should clarify this.

          The area is of considerable interest  as it  is  the  site of a large lead  and  zinc  mine development.  A  port for the  export  of  this ore is being constructed smack in the  middle of  important  dugong  habitat.  The  dugongs are  hunted  by the traditional owners  of  the area,  the  Yanyuwa people, who  are  understandably  very concerned about  the  impacts of   ore  spillages  and  boat  traffic   on   the dugong  population. They are also  concerned about  the  level of dugong mortality  in  nets used by professional barramundi fishers. It  is hard  to determine how many dugongs die  as a  result of hunting and gillnets, so  the  scale of the problem remains unclear.

          The tracking is being used to  identify the   dugongs'  important  habitat  areas   and determine their movement patterns.  Previous attempts  met with limited success,  primarily because   of   difficulties  keeping   the   PTT transmitters   on  the  animals.  This   is   not simply a matter of having a strong tether  that does  not  constrict or irritate the  dugong.  It must  also  have  a  weak  link,  allowing  the PTT  to be shed if caught amongst  mangrove roots or coral outcrops. The transmitter  must also  detach from the dugong before  the  batteries  expire,  so it can be retrieved  and  re-used.

          Our  earlier  attempts  used  modifications  of  the  weak link  and  corrodible  link used  on manatees. Perversely,  our  dugongs seem  to  live in a much more  corrosive  and shark-infested  environment than their  northern  cousins.  The  corrodible  links  lasted  6 weeks  instead of 6 months, and large  sharks had a propensity to test the weak links.  After trying   various  variations  on   the   manatee theme,  it  became  apparent that  a  new  approach  was  required. In  collaboration  with Andrew  Hunter, an engineer at James  Cook University,  we developed an  all-new  tether incorporating  a stack of camera  batteries,  a computer  chip,  and an explosive  fuse.  The chip  acts as a clock and is wired  to  explode the fuse at a set time (3.5 or 7 months in  our case).  The  fuse shatters the  end-cap  of  the canister,   and   the   silicon-sheathed    nylon webbing that ties around the dugong's peduncle  is  released. By being  able  to  anticipate when  the PTT will be shed, it is  possible  to be  in the area, thus maximizing  the  chances of  recovering  it.  The  weak  link  was  also redesigned,  and the method of  adjusting  the fit  of  the webbing was greatly  simplified.  I also  simplified the tagging operation,  which now involves just one boat and three  people, although  an  aircraft  is very  useful  to  help locate and pursue the dugongs.

          Two  dugongs  were tracked  for  113 and   114  days,  and  at  this  writing   (early October)  another three tags are still on  after 136 days (4.5 months). If all goes well, these animals   will   be  tracked   until   about   21 November.  Of  the first two,  one  PTT  was shed  as  a result of an unusual  and,  as  yet, inexplicable  break in the 3-m  flexible  nylon rod that connects the peduncle tether and  the buoyant  PTT housing. The second PTT  was due to release from its dugong after about  90 days,  but  failed  to  do  so.  Fortunately  we were   able   to  recapture  this   animal   and remove  the transmitter. It turned out  that  at least  one  of  the batteries in  the  tether  was faulty.   Due  to  the  phase-out  of   mercury batteries   (owing   to  their   contribution   to mercury  pollution), it looks like we  got  one that had been on the shelf too long. The other tethers may also have bad batteries. We  have now modified the tether to use lithium batteries.

          The five dugongs have so far provided three  important pieces of information.  First, dugongs  are not just dugongs, they are  individuals. Second, the dugongs in this area  are highly  social,  and  third,  they  move   over much larger areas than previously thought.

          Starting   with   the   last   point,   the dugongs  thought nothing of popping  50  km along  the  coast to spend a day or  two  with some other dugongs, and then hopping the 50 km  back to their current core area. The  five dugongs  were  all caught from  one  herd  of about  200  near the Bing  Bong  Creek  area. Three  spent time at a site 50 km to  the  west (Rosie  Creek area). Two of these also  spent time   100   km   west  of   the   capture   site (Limmen Bight River). One spent some  time 50  km east of the capture area. One that  had spent  over two months in the Limmen  Bight River-Rosie   Creek   areas   then    traveled, apparently  without significant stops, 400  km east  of the capture area, where she has  spent the  past  two months. Hence, her  range  has spanned more than 500 km of coastline.

          While   that  dugong  has  been   very mobile,  another has been remarkably  sedentary.  With the exception of one or two  brief sojourns  about  10  km to the  east,  she  has spent  the past 4.5 months within a couple  of km of the site of her capture. The other three dugongs  have  tended  to  divide  their   time unevenly between two or three sites separated by  about  50 km. It would  be  premature  to generalize  too  much  about  the   movement patterns  of the Bing Bong dugongs; they  are surprisingly individualistic.

          They are also highly social. As I have said,   each  has  used  1-3  preferred   areas. Excluding the area 400 km to the east  (about which  I  know very little), the  five  dugongs collectively   use  just  five  preferred   areas. Aerial  surveys have confirmed that herds  of 50-200  dugongs  occurred  at  each  of  these preferred sites. So although they move  about a  lot, and move about independently  of  one another,  they  have all been  moving  among the  same  five dugong  herds.  Significantly, very  few  were seen on  the  shoreline  aerial surveys that were not in these herds.

          I  also  attached  time-depth  recorders (TDRs)  to  the  tethers  of  the  five   tagged dugongs.  I have data from one of these,  and a very preliminary scan indicates that the data are  very  interesting.  Watch  this  space!   -  Tony Preen

 

CUBA

 

          Manatee  Workshop.  -   Representatives  from  governmental  organizations,  the Ministries of Agriculture, Fisheries,  Science and  Technology, the University  of  Havana, the   Center   for  Marine   Studies   and   the Academy  of  Sciences  attended  a   two-day national workshop on the conservation of  the West  Indian manatee which was held on  19-20 May 1994 in Havana.

          Various  sectors  of  the   government expressed  their willingness to join efforts  in the management of manatees, and act cooperatively  to  accomplish the tasks  they  agreed should  be  tackled first. Some  of  the  topics covered  were  the biology and  status  of  the manatee in Cuba; the manatee in Laguna  del Tesoro   and  the  experiment  conducted   on manatee capture, transport and handling. The National  Plan  for  the  Conservation  of  the Manatee  in Cuba was also  presented. 

          Some  of the conclusions included  the need   for  a)  the  preparation  of  a   general proposal to try to obtain financial support  for the  activities  in  the  next  few  months;   b) production of the proceedings of the meeting; c)  starting  of a  manatee  national  network; and  d)  convening of a second  workshop  in November 1995.

          For  more information  contact:  Dra. Delice  Salabarria, Ministerio de  Ciencias  y Tecnologia,  (COMARNA), Avenida 17,  No. 5008  e 50 y 52 Playa, Codigo Postal  11300, La  Habana, Cuba; telephone  (537)  330102; telefax   (537)  330101.   -   (reprinted   from CEPNEWS (UNEP) 8(3), Sept. 1994.)

 

FLORIDA

 

          New   Staging   Area   for    "Soft" Releases   of   Manatees.   -   The   Captive Manatee      Interagency/Oceanaria      Group (CMIG)  was  created  several  years  ago  to advise  the Florida Manatee  Recovery  Team on  issues  related to  captive  manatees.  The CMIG  first  discussed the concept of  a  pre-release  enclosure  over  2  years  ago,  as   a means  of  conditioning  long-term   captives, especially manatees born in captivity,  before releasing  them  into  the  wild.  The  cost  of maintaining manatees in captivity is high, and the  five  major  facilities  currently   holding manatees  must  release some  of  their  long-term  residents  to  make  room  for  sick   or injured manatees in need of veterinary care.

          The  soft-release  enclosure   program has  been a cooperative effort, headed by  the U.S.  Fish & Wildlife Service's Field  Office in Jacksonville. Other cooperators include the National Biological Survey's Sirenia  Project, Merritt   Island  National   Wildlife   Refuge, Kennedy  Space Center, Florida  Department of Environmental Protection, Sea World, and Save the Manatee Club.

          The  work conducted in the  enclosure this past summer could be regarded as a  pilot project to assess: (1) the suitability and safety of  the  enclosure  design;  (2)  if  and   when manatees  in the enclosure would begin  feeding on available vegetation; (3) the impact  of manatee grazing on the vegetation within  the enclosure;  and  (4) manatee behavior  in  the enclosure and interactions with those outside. The   Sirenia  Project  also   conducted   PTT transmitter accuracy tests using the impounded manatees.

          Construction   of  the  enclosure   was completed  in August. It lies within the  Merritt  Island National Wildlife Refuge  and  the Kennedy  Space Center, and comprises  three adjacent pens with a total area of 4.5 acres.

          The  first  manatee placed in it  was  a rehabilitated  male who had been in  captivity for 6 months. He immediately began interacting with wild manatees outside the enclosure, and  within 5 days was grazing on  seagrasses growing  inside it. He then received  a  companion,  an  orphaned 3-year-old  male,  who was next to the first animal within minutes of his introduction into the pen. They  remained together constantly at first, but the periods of time   when  they  were  apart   increased   in frequency, duration, and distance over time.

          Both  animals were recaptured  at  the end  of  August to be  reweighed  and  blood-sampled.   Neither  had  lost  or   gained   an appreciable  amount  of  weight.  They  were then  put  back  into  separate  pens,  and  the second   manatee  was  placed  with   another young orphaned male. The first manatee  was released  to  the  wild with a radio  tag  on  1 September.  He has since stayed in the  upper Banana  River, but has not come back  to  the enclosure site.

          The  other two stayed  close  together, feeding  on  algae  and  seagrass,  and   often interacted  with  manatees  outside  the  fence that  were apparently attracted to the  site  by the  captives.  Both were  recaptured  and  returned   to   Sea  World  on   15   September. Although  they appeared to adapt  quickly  to their  new saltwater surroundings, they  must be  given  ample  time  to  find  warm  water sources  before  cold  weather  arrives.  They will  probably  be among  the  first  manatees placed  in the enclosure next spring, and  will make   good   "mentors"   for    captive-born manatees  that  have never  been  exposed  to natural conditions.

          Comparison of before-and-after  aerial photographs   and  vegetation  maps   of   the enclosure should allow a reasonable  estimate of  biomass removal. While  grazing  impacts were evident, the overall impact on seagrasses  has  not been as large  as  expected.  This may  be  explained by the  presence  of  large amounts  of algae (primarily Gracilaria  spp. and   Chaetomorpha),  which   the   manatees readily  consumed;  their tendency  to  spread out  their grazing activity; and the  possibility that   they   were  eating   less   than   normal amounts.  We  also may  have  overestimated their consumption rate.

          This   first  trial  of   the   soft-release program   was  encouraging.  The   enclosure design  appears  safe  and   "manatee-proof," though  keeping the structure free of  encrusting   organisms   and  drift   vegetation   may become  a  problem.  Learning  by   example from  experienced  manatees within  the  pen, and  possibly  from wild  ones  outside,  may expedite  feeding and other  behaviors.  Grazing  impacts  should  allow  at  least  a  crude estimate  of carrying capacity.  Grazed  areas within  the enclosure should recover  by  next summer.  Monitoring  of  released   manatees will  still be necessary, to determine  if  long-term  captives  can  find their  way  to  warm water  sources  and other  resources  used  by wild manatees.  -  Lynn Lefebvre

 

GERMANY

 

          Manatee   Breeding   Successes   in Nuremberg.  - Recently, my husband  and  I visited  the  zoological  park  in  Nuremberg, Germany  to meet with the  veterinarian,  Dr. Anton Gauckler, and observe the West Indian manatees   at  their  facility.  Our  visit   was sparked  by a concerned visitor's letter to  the Save  the Manatee Club regarding  the  manatees in the zoo.

          The  zoo  is  located  on  63   hectares within  the city limits and is home to  approximately 2000 animals from around the world. The  manatees  are housed  in  the  "Tropical House" in an approximately 80 m2 (750  ft2) by  1.8 m (6 ft) deep cement/Plexiglas  pool. The  Tropical  House  opened  in  1977   and contains  other  tropical animals  such  as  the hippopotamus, tapirs, etc.

          In  1979 the zoo acquired a  male  and female  (both  about  2  years  of  age)  wild-caught  manatee  pair from  Guyana.  On  27 July  1981  the  pair gave birth  to  their  first calf.  This  was celebrated as a  big  event  as this  was only the second baby manatee  born in  captivity in all of  Europe.  Unfortunately the  calf was not accepted by its  mother,  but was successfully hand-raised. Following this, 12  calves  were born (including two  sets  of twins),  of which 10 were successfully  raised by the mother. The other two calves died as a result  of heart degeneration and  a  condition known as hydrocephalus (an accumulation  of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain).

          The  pool  is presently the home  of  6 manatees,  ranging  from  large  adults  to   a young nursing calf. The others are located  in other  zoos  or sea life  parks  internationally, including Japan and Singapore. The  Nuremberg  zoo has found that their  animals  thrive extremely   well  on  an  English  ray   grass, Lolium perenne, which they grow themselves on  a large farm nearby. They  also  supplement  the  grass  with  corn,  wheat,   Antibe lettuce, cabbage, and minerals.

          The animals are in a freshwater recirculating  pool  with  a UV  light  as  a  water disinfectant  unit. They do not chlorinate  the pools  as numerous facilities in the  U.S.  do; thus  the  pools  have  a  patchy  slight  green algal  growth which is similar to  the  natural environment. In addition, the water is  seined in a decreasing-size metal mesh before  going into  the  sand filtration  system.  As  anyone who  has  worked with manatees  knows,  the voluminous   amount  of  feces  the   animals produce  is a constant challenge  to  filtration systems,  and I found their system to be  very efficient.

          The  pool appears to be a bit  crowded with  the  number of animals  it  holds.  They have plans to enlarge it into the adjacent tank in  the  near future, which  should  allow  the animals much greater mobility.

          They  plan  to  participate  in   genetic studies with Freiburg University, and when  I asked Dr. Gauckler if he would be  interested in  participating  in  such  a  study  with   the Caribbean  Stranding Network and  investigators in the United States, he agreed.

          Dr.  Gauckler has traveled to  Guyana and is quite familiar with the animals' natural habitat.  He  studied in Munich  and  Vienna, and has been a zoo veterinarian for 23  years. I would like to thank him for taking the  time to show us the entire facility and the  dolphinarium.  This was a spontaneous visit and  he spent  several  hours discussing at  length  the manatee  facility and future expansion  plans, as  well as numerous veterinary  medical  and nutritional aspects of manatees in captivity.  -  Dr.  Debra P. Moore (Caribbean  Stranding Network, Puerto Rico)

          [EDITOR'S  NOTE:  Eleven   completed pregnancies in 15 years, starting at the age of 2 or 3, is an unprecedented record  for a  nursing  manatee  mother, as is  a  pair  of twin births in captivity. This report is  doubly surprising as, to my knowledge, no reports of the  births  at Nuremberg  subsequent  to  the first  one have found their way into  even  the popular,  let  alone the  scientific,  literature. Artificial insemination was, however, reportedly   used.  Further  documentation  of   this breeding program would be welcome.

          I  also note with a certain smug  satisfaction the zoo's dependence on pasture grass as  a  source  of  manatee  fodder.  Since  our success with raising manatees on this kind  of food  years  ago at INPA in Manaus,  I  have often and unsuccessfully urged U.S. oceanaria   to   adopt   this   inexpensive   expedient. Manatees,  in  my view, are designed  to  run best on ordinary grass (Gramineae) of various sorts;  certainly  they keep well on it,  and  it has  always seemed to me to be a  better  and cheaper option than the usual lettuce. Hydroponically-grown  grasses  have  the   apparent advantage of being available year-round,  but somehow  the  Nuremberg zoo  seems  to  be getting  a  year-round supply  of  farm-grown grass   even  at  the  temperate   latitudes   of Germany! Again, more details would certainly be welcome.

          Finally, can any correspondents fill us in   on  the  previously  unreported   manatee facility in Singapore?]

 

MADAGASCAR

 

          Status  and Exploitation  of  Madagascar's Coastal Marine Resources. - In an effort to assess and monitor the coastal  zones of  western  Indian Ocean states,  the  Centre for Dolphin Studies - Port Elizabeth Museum (CDS-PEM),  South Africa, began in 1991  a cooperative,  long-term  program  of   coastal zone  research and monitoring of the  southwestern Indian Ocean region. Primarily,  this work  is  aimed at  determining,  through  the status  of  marine  mammals  and  reptiles  in particular,  the  'health' of  the  coastal  zone systems   of  western  Indian   Ocean   states. Circumstantial evidence suggests a decline  in numbers  of these species in almost all  areas, possibly  due  to  coastal  zone   degradation, including  the  increased  use  of  gillnets   by artisanal  fishermen.  The CDS-PEM  has  so far undertaken or planned limited preliminary studies in Mozambique, Kenya and Madagascar.

          The   uniqueness   and   diversity    of Madagascar's  terrestrial biota are  well  recognized,  and  an immense amount  of  effort and money is spent educating Madagascans in its value and the need for its conservation.  In contrast,  little thought is given to  the  fauna and flora of the coastal marine  environment, which  is  equally  diverse  and  deserving  of conservation.

          CDS-PEM  conducted  a   preliminary investigation  of  these  resources  in  August through  November of 1993. Time,  financial and  language constraints precluded a  survey of the entire 4500 km of Madagascar's coast. Nevertheless,  observational,  anecdotal   and incidental data were gathered from  individuals  and  organizations  in as  many  areas  as possible.

          Primary  survey effort  was  restricted to two areas:

  -  The west coast, especially the  southwest, where  most turtle hatcheries occur and  there are  also  extensive seagrass  beds,  a  known food   of  both  dugongs  and  turtles.   Also, though  the  Toliara  region  has  a  relatively high  human population and the  coastal  zone is,  therefore,  quite  heavily  exploited,   the west   coast  generally  has  a  lower   human density and probably less exploitation.

  - An area on the northeast coast, the Masoala Peninsula, provided comparative data for a relatively unpopulated area on the east coast.

          The  two areas differ greatly in  oceanographic  and climatic features. The  Toliara region  is  semi-desert,  with  a  coral  barrier reef.  Mangroves  occur throughout,  but  are concentrated near river mouths.  The  Masoala  Peninsula  is covered  in  coastal  lowland rain forest.   Coral and mangroves are  found on  both  sides  of  the  peninsula,  the   latter principally bordering river mouths.

          Information gathered by an  interview survey  indicates that dugongs occur only  on the west and northeast coasts of  Madagascar, though their distribution appears to be  highly fragmented and not continuous.

          On  the west coast,  fishermen  report seeing a group of about 5 to 10 dugongs in an area approximately 100 km south of  Toliara. However,  in  the Toliara  region  itself,  dugongs  have  not  been  seen  since  the  mid-1960s  and young fishermen do not know  the Malagasy word for dugong.

          Fishermen   report  that  six   dugongs were  caught  in October 1992  in  Morombe, approximately   200  km  north   of   Toliara, though   there  are  apparently   no   dugongs between  the  two  areas.  Though  the   coast north  of Morombe, as far as  Mahajunga,  is isolated and relatively uninhabited, fishermen report  the  existence  of  extensive   seagrass beds   and  there  are  confirmed  reports   of dugong captures in Soalala. One dugong  was captured  in  the Mahajunga region  in  1991. For the coast between Mahajunga and  Diego Suarez there is little information, as this  area is  also  sparsely populated  and  seldom  frequented, even by tourists (the exception is the popular resort at Nosy Be). Nevertheless, the northwest   coast  is  characterized  by   large sheltered   bays,  apparently  with   extensive seagrass meadows.

          There  are  no recent  reports  of  dugongs   on   the   east   coast   between   Fort Dauphin  and Tamatave.  Divers and  tourists report  sightings of two dugongs at Isle  Saint Marie,  north  of Tamatave, prior  to   spring 1992,   but  there  are  no  recent   confirmed sightings. No information is available for  the area  between  Tamatave  and   Maroantsetra, but  the area is relatively  densely  populated, suggesting  that dugong occurrence is  unlikely.

          Between  Maroantsetra and  Antalaha, fishermen   rate  dugongs  as  abundant,   but report  that their numbers are  declining,  and attribute   their  apparent  decline  to   fishing pressure (F. Odendaal, pers. comm.).  There has  been  only  one  reported  recent   (since 1992) dugong capture from the villages visited on the Masoala Peninsula. However, prior to  1992, there were many reports of  dugong captures.   In   Ambohitralana,   up   to   two dugongs  per  week were caught  until  1990, but only one subsequently (December  1993). Most  recent  sightings for the area  are  from the  Bay  of Antongil and Cap  Est.  Dugongs are  also  reported north of  Antalaha,  up  to Diego  Suarez, with a confirmed  sighting  in the Bay of Diego Suarez.    

          Large  seagrass  beds  were  found  in both  the  southwest  and  northeast   regions. Seagrass  generally occurs at depths of  about 1-10  m.  In the Toliara region,  four  species were    identified,     Thalassia    hemprichii, Thalassodendron,  Syringodium   isoetifolium and  Cymodocea sp., although  other  species are  known to have occurred.  Seagrass  beds generally  occur  between the  coral  reef  flat and the shore and none were observed outside the  reef  areas in the Toliara region.  On  the windward  side  of  the  Masoala   Peninsula, extensive seagrass beds were found and  their distribution and species composition appeared similar to the Toliara region. On the  leeward side,  there  are some  seagrass  meadows  as well as mixed seagrass and algal beds.

          Coastal zone resources are used extensively  by  the coastal communities.  In  large areas,   the  sea  provides  the   only   protein source for the local population. The  pressure on  coastal  resources  increases  in  times  of drought,  when agriculture is abandoned  and food  gathering  is  done  exclusively  in   the coastal zone. Vegetation is also destroyed for salt  pan  and  large-scale  shrimp  farm  construction.  Mangroves  are  cut  for  firewood and  building  material. A  variety  of  shells, crabs,  corals, shark jaws, and  other  inshore fauna  and  flora is sold to  tourists  by  street vendors in the larger towns.

          The   areas   surrounding   algae   and seagrass beds are extensively fished. Fishermen   generally  use  handlines,   small-mesh gillnets  (deployed from piroques),  or  beach seine  nets,  the  latter  often  damaging  both types  of beds. Sea cucumbers  and  molluscs are  also harvested, although  sea  cucumbers appear   to  be  severely  depleted,   even   in remote  areas. Seaweed is collected  in  some areas,  but not extensively. The  influence  of this on seagrass beds is unknown. Large  fish traps,  extending from the shore up to 150  m in  to  the  sea,  are  used  in  the  lee  of  the Masoala Peninsula.

          Industrial  pollution  is limited  to  the major  coastal  towns. There are  reports  that the  waste from the sugar cane  refineries  on Nosy Be has hurt large areas of coral. Human waste  constitutes the bulk of pollution in  the rural coastal areas. As the population increases,   this  may  pose  a  considerable   human health  threat, and may eventually also  cause eutrophication in coastal waters.

          Though little siltation of reefs or mangroves  was observed in either the Toliara  or Masoala  regions, large siltation  plumes  can be  seen from the air off many  rivers,  especially  on  the west coast.  These  plumes  are probably  a result of erosion caused by  overgrazing and destruction of riverine vegetation in   the  higher  reaches  of  river   catchment areas.   Siltation   of   coral   reefs    between Morondava  and  Mahajunga  is  reported  by divers and it is likely, therefore, that seagrass beds in the region are also adversely affected.

          Although intense deforestation  occurs on  the Masoala Peninsula, crops are  planted in  these areas immediately,  limiting  topsoil loss.  However, slash and burn  deforestation ('tavy')  on  river banks and steep hill  slopes causes  substantial  erosion,  especially   after cyclones.

          Spears and harpoons are used to catch crayfish,   octopus,  dolphins,  dugongs   and turtles.   Though  gillnets  are  seldom  intentionally  set for dolphins, dugongs or  turtles, these   species   are  actively   pursued   once observed.  If dugongs are frequently  seen  in an area, nets are set for them.

          Fishermen  from  established  villages (older than 5 years) report that they never see dugongs  over  inshore seagrass  beds  during the  day,  but only between dusk  and  dawn. Dugongs  apparently move out to  sea  during the  day. In more recent settlements,  fishermen  report dugongs during the day  in  areas where  seagrass  beds  occur.  All   fishermen report   that   dugongs   avoid   contact   with humans  and are generally seen alone  -  even smaller  animals, with only one group  larger than two reported.

          Poverty  and a  growing  population's need for food are the biggest problems facing conservation  in Madagascar. Cash  and  subsistence   crop  production  is  hampered   by either seasonal droughts or floods, as well  as poor   transport   and   marketing    facilities. Consequently,   exploitation  of  the   inshore region   of  Madagascar  fulfills   two   basic, immediate  needs  of the  local  people,  food and  money. Unfortunately, the inshore  zone is  already heavily exploited and many of  the methods  used  are  either  indiscriminate   or destructive. Fortunately, the fishermen interviewed  were  aware of a  decline  in  catches and  expressed an interest in  alternative  fishing  methods  and  a  sustainable  fishing  resource.  Despite this, in view of the  growing population  and its need for food and  wealth, destructive exploitation of coastal resources is likely  to  continue,  and  probably   increase. This  is  already  evident  in  the  increase  in shark   gillnetting  in  recent  years  and   the continued decline in fish and coral resources. As   the  destructive  exploitation  of   coastal resources   is  caused  primarily   by   coastal communities,  the  solutions  to  the  problem seemingly lie with these communities.

          For both marine mammals and turtles, an  increase  in coastal  resource  exploitation will negatively impact local stocks, especially those  using coastal resources. This  is  especially  so when local stocks become  targeted, because  of  their  value  as  meat  or   tourist accoutrements, rather than incidental catches, as  has happened in South America. The  proliferation   of  targeted  hunting   for   marine mammals and turtles should be avoided at  all costs.

          Although 'ecotourism' is hailed as one way  to  save  the environment, it  is  a  two-edged  sword. One problem is that  it  creates high expectations within the local population, who are invariably disappointed when only  a trickle of tourists, and even less money,  pass their  way. Additionally,  though  ecotourism may have some potential for dugong  conservation, dugong behavior may mitigate against its  success. Dugongs are apparently shy  and will  generally  avoid  contact  with  humans,  especially  in  areas  where  they  have   been hunted. Consequently, using 'dugong  watching' to attract tourists may cause the  animals to  leave an area.  Nevertheless,  community-based   ecotourism  (where   the   community benefits directly from tourists and the  money they  spend, rather than indirectly, through  a hotel, etc.), in combination with engendering an  awareness of the need for sustainable  use of  community-owned resources, is  one  way of increasing the value of natural resources to local communities.

          In  Australia,  dugongs are  known  to have  large  feeding ranges and  may  migrate seasonally. As a result, fixed protected  areas may   have  only  a  limited  value  for   their conservation,   particularly   if   fishing   and hunting  in  unprotected areas  increases.  But the   creation  of  protected,  or   limited-use, areas  may  be  beneficial,  especially   where human  population density is low.  Relatively undisturbed  areas still exist in the  northwest and  northeast  of Madagascar  and  they  not only   have  immense  tourist  potential,   but could   also  provide  respite  for   vulnerable inshore resources.

          Despite  these problems,  dugong  and turtle conservation is urgent and can probably best  be  effected  through  a  combination  of protected  areas,  ecotourism,  education  and 'community legislation' - where the  resource becomes the 'royal game', or property, of all community  members. This may  prevent  the exploitation of the resource by only a  section of  the community and could lead  the  community, as a whole, to finding the best possible  way  of using (preserving)  its  'common property'.  In view of the past,  and  possibly current,  substantial  catch  of  dugongs   and turtles throughout Madagascar, a pilot project to  assess  the  effectiveness of  such  an  approach  to  conservation  should  be  initiated immediately.

          Possibly the most pressing  immediate need is to establish some 'base-line'  estimate of  dugong, and concurrently turtle,  distribution  and  abundance.  This  is  best   accomplished   through  aerial  surveys.  Not   only should  the  unknown  areas of  the  coast  be surveyed,  but  also areas  of  known  dugong occurrence,  as identified by this  preliminary survey.  Subsequently, the movements,  feeding   dynamics   and   conservation   potential (through  community work) of  dugongs  and turtles   in  areas  where  they  are   abundant should be assessed.

          Figures  given and conclusions  drawn from  this survey are preliminary  and  reflect only   information   gathered  from   a   small sample  of areas and fishermen.  Consequently,  they should be viewed with caution  until such  time as more information  is  available. As  an example: Most  fishermen  questioned reported  a  decline in dugong  sightings  and catches. Although this may imply a decline in dugong  numbers  in most areas, it  may  also only  indicate a change in  dugong  behavior! Fishing  operations often  entail  considerable disturbance, such as beating the water surface with  oars, and fishermen  confidently  report that dugongs move offshore and are not  seen during the day. In conjunction, the latter  two facts suggest that sightings and captures  have only  decreased because dugongs avoid  people; that during the day they may move out to deeper  seagrass beds, at depths of  30-50  m, where fishermen don't fish.

          Given this uncertainty, the vulnerability of marine mammals and turtles to exploitation,  and the possibility of local area  extinction  of  some species (e.g.,  dugongs),  it  is imperative  that  further work be  done.  This should include:

          1.  Creation and implementation  of  a coastal zone management plan for  Madagascar,  particularly  areas  where  dugongs  and turtles are still abundant.

          2.  Increasing local awareness  of  the need  for coastal resource  conservation,  and developing  local  expertise  in  research  and conservation.

          3.  For dugongs and turtles,  conducting  aerial surveys to identify areas of  abundance and estimate numbers.

          4.  Identifying areas suitable for establishment of marine reserves. With the consent and co-operation of local communities,  these should be established (through  Governmental legislation,  community  consensus  or   both) and  biological research on the  inshore  biota initiated.

          5.   In   established   protected   areas especially, alternative fishing practices should be  investigated  and  artisanal  fishermen  instructed and encouraged in their use.

          6.   The  effect  of  the   shark-fishing operation  on  marine  mammals  and   turtles should  be  further investigated  and  methods  found  to prevent incidental capture  of  these animals.   -  Berthin  Pierre  Rakotonirina, V.G.  Cockcroft, M. Kroese, and  Michel Vély

 

MARYLAND

 

          New Northern Record for  Manatee Distribution. - A wayward Florida  manatee recently  set a new record for  the  northernmost  scientifically-substantiated   occurrence of  his  species.  After  having  been   sighted several  times in mid- and late  September  in the  upper  Chesapeake Bay,  he  was  finally captured   near   Queenstown   (latitude   39o north) by federal and state wildlife authorities on  1 October. He proved to be a  large  male (310  cm,  1,416 pounds)  in  apparent  good condition.   He  was  taken  to  the   National Aquarium  in  Baltimore for several  days  of observation,  then  flown  to  Sea  World   in Florida.  A  U.S. Coast Guard  C-130  cargo plane  was  used  for  the  transport,  since  it allowed  control  of  cabin  temperature   and pressure.  The manatee has numerous  healed scars, which will hopefully allow his identification   and  eventual  return  to  his   normal home range in Florida waters.

          Manatees, especially males,  typically range north from Florida during the summer, but  occurrences  north of Cape  Hatteras  are uncommon.  This  animal just  barely  bested the   previous  northernmost  record,   set   in August  1980  by  a  manatee  sighted  in  the Potomac  River  in  Washington,  D.C.  It  is thought that this was the same individual  that was found dead at Hampton, Virginia, on  23 October  of  the same  year,  underlining  the importance   of   returning   such   strays   to warmer waters as fall approaches.

          There   is   anecdotal   evidence    that manatees  were more common  summer  visitors  to  the Chesapeake region  in  past  decades.  Fossil manatees, probably  Pleistocene in age, have been reported from New  Jersey, and  alleged strandings in Greenland  and  the North Sea are recorded in the late eighteenth-century   literature.  It  seems   possible   that animals  entrained by the Gulf  Stream  might have  survived  long enough to drift  to  those places,   especially   if  an   unusually   warm summer  and/or a larger  manatee  population in  Florida caused larger-than-usual  numbers of animals to disperse northward.  -  DPD

         

PUERTO RICO

 

          Moises   the  Manatee  Released.   - Moises the Manatee, an orphaned 2-week-old calf  found stranded in November  1991,  had grown  to 235 cm and over 286 kg by  March 1994,  and  was moved from La  Parguera  to Roosevelt   Roads  Naval  Station,  where   a reintroduction  staging  area  had  been   prepared.   This  comprised   an   approximately 350,000-square-foot  area enclosed by  a  750 ft.  chain-link fence, containing water 1-5  ft. deep   over  a  mostly  muddy   bottom   with Syringodium, Thalassia, and red mangroves.

          Over the next three months, his condition  and  behavior  were  intensively   monitored. As of mid-June, he was in good physical  condition, active, and regularly  drinking from  a  fresh-water hose. However,  he  had shown  considerable resistance to  adopting  a seagrass  diet,  despite  denial  of  his  accustomed  lettuce,  and had lost over 7%  of  his body  weight.  Supplemental  feeding  with  a mixture  of  lettuce and  seagrass  was  begun again,  and  efforts  were made  to  lure  wild manatees closer to or within the enclosure  so (Item:  It  was  recently reported that Baltimore, Maryland has the worst postal  service  in  the U.S.  The  following  appeared  on the editorial page of the Baltimore  Sun,  4  October  1994. [Copyright  c  Cartoonists and Writers Syndicate. Used with permission.])

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

that   Moises  could  observe  and   hopefully mimic their feeding behavior. By 17 June  he had  begun  grazing  on Thalassia;  as  of  12 September  he had joined up with some  wild manatees and was exploring the shores of  the naval base, carrying a satellite tag.  -  Caribbean Stranding Network

 

          New  Baby  Manatee  Healthy   and Growing. - Another orphaned baby  manatee rescued in Puerto Rico in May 1993 is  doing fine  and  growing. He arrived at  the  Carribean  Stranding Network (CSN) facility  after being found alone for a week off Ocean  Park in San Juan, on the north coast. The  2-week-old   baby,  only  4  feet  in  length   and   63 pounds, suffered from intestinal infection and was  in critical condition for months.  Thanks to aggressive antibiotic treatment, and  bottle-feeding with manatee milk sent by the Miami Seaquarium,  he has now passed 286  pounds and is being weaned from a soybean and goat milk  formula  to seagrass. We expect  to  release him back to the wild on his turning  two years   of   age.   -    Caribbean   Stranding Network

 

 

          Reward   Offered   for   Killer    of Manatee.  - A US$5,000 reward was  posted on  18  July 1994 for information  leading  to the  arrest  and conviction of the killer  of  an Antillean  manatee  found  in  Ceiba,  Puerto Rico,  with  a  5-inch gunshot  wound  to  its chest,  an  act  punishable  by  imprisonment. The 10-foot adult manatee was found floating just  offshore  on 15 July,  having  been  shot that morning.

          The   Caribbean  Stranding   Network (CSN),  which  performed  a  necropsy,   believes the shot came from either a shotgun  or a  power head, a speargun-like  weapon  used for hunting sharks. The shot ruptured the  left ventricle of the heart.

          The  U.S.  Fish  &  Wildlife   Service offered   a  $2,500  reward  for   information leading  to  the conviction  of  the  manatee's slayer.  The Marine Industry  Association  of Puerto  Rico matched the reward. 

          The  U.S.  Endangered  Species  Act, administered by the Fish & Wildlife  Service, mandates  a  year  in prison  and/or  up  to  a $100,000  fine  for killing a  manatee.  Nonetheless,  humans cause most manatee  deaths in  Puerto  Rico. Last year,  six  were  found dead, most by human agency. One was found shot dead in Fajardo, near the locality of  this year's  killing. Typically, they are  killed  by boats  or nets. Less common are deaths  from natural  causes. According to  aerial  surveys, there  are  between 60 and  250  manatees  in Puerto  Rico;  it  is  unknown  whether  their numbers have grown or diminished since they were  declared endangered.  -  (adapted  from the San Juan Star, 19 July 1994)

 

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

 

          Manatee  Status Survey  Planned.  - The   Caribbean  Stranding  Network   (CSN) recently  visited  Trinidad  to  investigate  the feasibility  of  helping  the  government   and local      non-governmental       organizations (NGOs)  study the status of manatees  in  this island,   where   until   recently   they    were thought to be extinct. Antonio Mignucci  met with  local  and  government  representatives, and  visited  the  Mitan River  in  the  Nariva Swamp to observe manatees from an elevated platform constructed by the local Rotary Club in  cooperation  with the  government's  Wildlife  Section, the Field Naturalist Club,  and other  NGOs.  About half a  dozen  manatees have  been documented by volunteers  in  the river  during  the past few years,  and  efforts have   been  started  to  develop   community conservation programs.

          Although local interest was very  high and volunteers were very eager to  participate in  manatee  conservation, little is  known  to date  about the Trinidadian manatee. It is  not known how many live around the island,  nor whether  those in the Mitan River leave  it  to mingle  with manatees elsewhere, or  if  they are   naturally  impounded   there.   Concerns have   been   expressed   regarding   chemical pollution  (pesticides, herbicides, etc.) of  the swamp and river by nearby agriculture.

          Ms.  Nadra Nathai-Gyan, head of  the Wildlife Section, expressed the government's high  interest in assessing manatee status  and encouraging local and international  organizations to study and protect the species.

          Following   the  initiative   of   Gupte Lutchmedial,   Jalaludin  Khan,  and   Nicole Leotaud, locals who have been very active  in sparking interest in manatees in Trinidad  and doing  base-line  work, the  CSN  is  looking forward to assisting the Wildlife Division and local  NGOs  in  1995.  They  will  present  a research proposal and seek funding for  aerial surveys, for a research program at the  Mitan River  on manatee health status,  life  history, and  genetic  variability, and hopefully  for  a radiotelemetry study of manatee  movements. - Caribbean Stranding Network

 

VENEZUELA

 

          Captive Manatees Examined. -  The Caribbean   Stranding  Network's   Scientific Coordinator,   Antonio   Mignucci,   recently visited  Venezuela  to  examine  four  captive manatees  held  at  different  zoos,  document their  status, health, and life-history  parameters,  make recommendations for  better  captive  care,  and  collect  skin  samples  for   a research  project on genetic  identification  of manatee  populations from different  parts  of the Caribbean.

          The  first manatee was  rescued  from poachers  in 1985 as a calf and reared by  the Aquarium  J.  V.  Seijas in  Valencia.  He  is now  9 years old. The second and third  animals,  both  females,  were  also  rescued   as calves  in 1992 in the municipality  of  Apure and  cared for at an aquaculture  station.  The fourth calf was rescued in 1992 near  Maracaibo   and   kept  at  the   Zoologico   Miguel Romero  Antoni in Barquisimeto,  where  the smaller  female from Apure was  also  moved early this year.

          The  two males are healthy and  showing  normal growth. The  females,  however, were  found to be in need of immediate  care, as their growth rate was less than 2  cm/year. The  diets  of the  manatees  at  Barquisimeto were  found  to be appropriate,  but  those  of the  others were not, and all four animals  are in need of improved water quality.

          The  captive facilities were very  willing  to make plans to improve  the  manatees' maintenance,   including  larger   tanks   with filter systems and diversified diets. The  CSN will   recommend  to   Venezuela's   national wildlife   agency   (PROFAUNA)   that    the Barquisimeto Zoo be allowed to take  custody of  the  second  female  manatee  as  well.   -  Caribbean Stranding Network

 

WASHINGTON, D.C.

 

          Progress on Publication of Sirenian Bibliography.   -  Domning's   Bibliography and  Index of the Sirenia and  Desmostylia  is presently in galley proofs; publication by  the Smithsonian  Institution Press is  planned  for early  in  1995.  It is  anticipated  that  copies will  be purchasable directly from the  Smithsonian Press.  -  DPD

ABSTRACTS

 

          Isolation and characterization of a partial cDNA encoding interleukin 2 from the  Florida manatee, Trichechus manatus latirostris (Mary Elizabeth Cashman). - Due to the  extreme importance  of IL-2 production in the mammalian immune response, and because very  little  is known  about  the immune response in the endangered Florida  manatee,  Trichechus  manatus latirostris, a partial cDNA encoding manatee IL-2 was isolated and characterized. The manatee IL-2  cDNA was molecularly cloned by reverse transcription/polymerase chain reaction  (PCR) using  primers  derived from IL-2 regions conserved among various  mammalian  species.  The resulting  manatee  IL-2  fragment,  which comprised 75% of  the  human  IL-2  open  reading frame,  consisted  of 347 base pairs encoding for a predicted product of 115  amino  acid  residues. The partial manatee IL-2 cDNA displayed 84%, 79%, 75%, 75%, 72%, and 72%  DNA sequence  homology  and 69%, 65%, 59%, 58%, 55%, and 53% amino  acid  homology  with human,  pig,  sheep,  cow,  rat, and mouse IL-2, respectively.  [Abstract  of  a  thesis  for  the degree of Bachelor of Science in Marine Science, submitted to Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, Florida, in 1994.]

 

          Preliminary  serum  chemistry  reference ranges of the  Antillean  manatee  (Trichechus manatus  manatus) in Colombia and Puerto Rico (Ruby Adiela Montoya Ospina). -  Preliminary  serum chemistry reference ranges for 20 parameters (alanine aminotransferase,  aspartate aminotransferase,  alkaline phosphatase, total bilirubin, creatine kinase,  lactic  dehydrogenase, blood  urea  nitrogen, creatinine, uric acid, glucose, triglycerides,  cholesterol,  amylase,  total protein,  albumin, sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphorus and calcium) were determined  for two  populations  of Antillean manatees (Trichechus manatus manatus). Values  were  obtained from  11  wild,  apparently healthy manatees captured in Puerto Rico in April  1992  and  May 1993  and  from 10 apparently healthy semicaptive manatees in Colombia in  June  1993.   The objectives  of this study were to establish reference ranges for this endangered species in  order to conduct adequate rehabilitation work and to compare the results with published values  from other Antillean manatee populations and from the Florida manatee (T. m. latirostris).

          Reference  ranges  were established using the percentile analysis  and  the  comparisons between  populations were conducted using the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test at  a  95% confidence level. It was found that between the Colombia and Puerto Rico populations, 13  out of  19 parameters were significantly different, 9 out of 14 were significantly different  between the Colombia and Florida populations, and 6 out of 14 were significantly different between the Colombia  and Guyana populations. It was also found that between the Puerto Rico  population and the Florida and Guyana populations, 10 out of 14 and 7 out of 13 parameters were significantly  different,  respectively.


          Differences were less pronounced between populations of the same subspecies and those with  similar  environments and diets. Greater differences were found between  populations  of different  subspecies,  although a direct correlation with environmental or dietal  variation  was not clearly observed. It is possible that habitat, food habits and chemical composition of plants, behavior,  metabolism, and perhaps taxonomic variables may have different effects on each  of the  above  parameters  and, most probably, the mechanisms to balance these  effects  are  also very  complex.  The  adaptations of each population to specific  environmental  conditions  are manifested,  apparently,  in  different serum chemistry values. In  addition,  variations  due  to methods  of  capture, sampling, techniques of restraining the animals, blood  sample  handling, and  laboratory  methodology  may have some effect on the serum  chemistry  values  reported here.    [Abstract of a thesis for the degree of Master of Science in Marine Sciences  submitted to the University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, in 1994.]

 

 

RECENT LITERATURE

 

Anonymous. 1993. The last sirenians. Aqua Geographia 6: 60-72.

 

Asano, S.  (ed.) 1993. [Dugong.]. Shizen [Nature] (Tokyo, Froebel-kan Co., Ltd.)  11:  1-28. [In Japanese. Hardbound book for kindergarten children, with numerous color photos.]

 

Barriel, V.,  P.  Darlu,  and  P. Tassy. 1993. Mammalian  phylogeny  and  conflicts  between morphological and molecular data. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. & Biol. Anim. 14(4): 157-171.  [French summ.]

 

Basu, P.K., D.P. Das, and T.C. Lahiri. 1991. Study of fossil marine Palaeogene mammals  of Gujarat. Recs. Geol. Surv. India 124(2): 9-10.

 

Brooks, L.S. 1994. Manatees on the air. ASPCA Animal Watch 14(3): 33.

 

Cave, A.J.E.  1993.  On  the  morphological  constitution  of  the  cetacean  pituitary   region. Investigations on Cetacea 24: 253-258. [T. manatus, 256-258.]

 

Fish, F.E.  1993.  Influence  of  hydrodynamic design  and  propulsive  mode  on  mammalian swimming energetics. Austral. Jour. Zool. 42: 79-101.

 

Frey, R.  1994.  Der  Zusammenhang  zwischen  Lokomotionsweise,  Begattungsstellung  und Penisla"nge  bei Sa"ugetieren. I. Testiconda (Mammalia mit  intraabdominaler  Hodenlage). Zs. Zool. Syst. Evolut.-forsch. 32: 137-155. [Engl. summ.]

 

Furusawa, H. 1994. The survey and subjects of North Pacific sirenian evolution from the view point  of  paleobiogeography.  Monogr.  Assoc. Geol. Collab.  Japan  43:  99-110.  [In Japanese; Engl. summ.]

 

Furusawa, H., and N. Kohno. 1994. Steller's sea-cow (Sirenia: Hydrodamalis gigas) from the Middle  Pleistocene Mandano Formation of the Boso Peninsula, central  Japan.  Fossils 56: 26-32. [In Japanese; Engl. summ.]

 

Johnson,  J.I., J.A.W. Kirsch, R.L. Reep, and R.C. Switzer. 1994. Phylogeny  through  brain traits:  more  characters for the analysis of mammalian evolution.  Brain  Behav.  Evol. 43(6): 319-347.

 

Kobayashi,  S.  1994.  On  the  comparison  of the  fossil  sirenian  skull  from  the  Shiotsubo Formation   (Upper   Miocene)  in  Takasato,  Fukushima  Prefecture,  with   those   of Dusisiren jordani and Dusisiren dewana. Monogr. Assoc. Geol. Collab. Japan 43:  91-97.

 

Livingston,  A.D.,  and H. Livingston. 1993. Edible plants and animals: unusual  foods  from aardvark to zamia. New York, Facts on File. [Manatee and dugong, 84-85.]

 

Marsh, H.,  R.I.T.  Prince,  W.K.  Saalfeld,  and R.  Shepherd.  1994.  The  distribution  and abundance  of  the dugong in Shark Bay, Western Australia.  Wildlife  Research  21(2): 149-161.

 

Massette, B. 1994. At home with the manatees. Dive Travel 9(6): 14, 16.

 

Morgan,  G.S.  1994.  Miocene and Pliocene marine mammal faunas  from  the  Bone  Valley Formation of central Florida. Proc. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 29: 239-268.

 

Nishinakagawa,  H.,  M.  Matsumoto, J. Otsuka, and S.  Kawaguchi.  1994.  Mammals  from archaeological  sites of the Jomon Period in Kagoshima Prefecture. Jour. Mamm.  Soc. Japan 19(1): 57-66.  [Record of dugong bones from Yoron Is., Amami Shoto.]

 

O'Shea, T.J. 1994. Manatees. Sci. Amer. 271(1): 66-72.

 

Pietsch, T.W. 1991. Samuel Fallours and his "Sirenne" from the province of Ambon. Archives of Nat. Hist. 18(1): 1-25.

 

Reynolds,  J.E.,  III,  &  J.R. Wilcox. 1994. Observations  on  Florida  manatees  (Trichechus manatus  latirostris)  around selected power plants in winter. Mar. Mamm.  Sci.  10(2): 163-177.

 

Rosas, F.C.W.  1994. Biology, conservation and status of the Amazonian manatee  Trichechus inunguis. Mamm. Rev. 24(2): 49-59.

 

Savage, R.J.G.,  D.P.  Domning  and  J.G.M. Thewissen. 1994. Fossil  Sirenia  of  the  West Atlantic  and  Caribbean region. V. The most primitive  known  sirenian,  Prorastomus sirenoides Owen, 1855. Jour. Vert. Pal. 14(3): 427-449.

 

Springer,  M.S.,  and  J.A.W.  Kirsch. 1993. A molecular  perspective  on  the  phylogeny  of placental   mammals   based  on  mitochondrial  12S  rDNA  sequences,   with   special reference to the problem of the Paenungulata. Jour. Mamm. Evol. 1(2): 149-166.

 

Tilmant, J.T., R.W. Curry, R. Jones, A. Szimant, J.C. Zieman, M. Flora, M.B. Robblee, D. Smith,  R.W.  Snow,  and H. Wanless. 1994. Hurricane Andrew's  effects  on  marine resources:  the  small  underwater  impact  contrasts  sharply  with  the  destruction   in mangrove and upland-forest communities. Bioscience 44(4): 230-237.

 

 

CHANGES OF ADDRESS

 

Pieter A. Folkens, 940 Adams St., Benicia, Calif. 94510-2950, USA

 

James A.  Powell,  Dept. of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing  Street,  Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UNITED KINGDOM

 

Tony Preen,  Dept. of Tropical Environment Studies and Geography, James Cook  University, Townsville 4811, AUSTRALIA; fax: **61-77-814020.

 

D. R. Rioux, 1330-B Broadway, Chico, Calif. 95928, USA

 

Jim Valade,  U.S.  Fish  & Wildlife Service, 6620 Southpoint  Dr.  South,  Jacksonville,  Fla. 32216-0912, USA

 

Diana Weinhardt,  Houston  Zoological  Gardens, 1513  North  MacGregor,  Houston,  Texas 77030 USA

 

 

 

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